International Journal of Drug Policy
Volume 16, Issue 4 , Pages 210-220 , August 2005

The public health and social impacts of drug market enforcement: A review of the evidence

  • Thomas Kerr

      Affiliations

    • British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, St. Paul's Hospital, Burrard Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6Z 1Y6
    • Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, Canada
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +1 604 806 9116; fax: +1 604 806 9044.
  • ,
  • Will Small

      Affiliations

    • British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, St. Paul's Hospital, Burrard Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6Z 1Y6
  • ,
  • Evan Wood

      Affiliations

    • British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, St. Paul's Hospital, Burrard Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6Z 1Y6
    • Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Canada

Received 27 May 2004 ,Revised 27 April 2005 ,Accepted 28 April 2005.

References 

  1. Aitken C, Moore D, Higgs P, Kelsall J, Kerger M. The impact of a police crackdown on a street drug scene: Evidence from the street. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2002;13:189–198
  2. Ball AL, Rana S, Dehne KL. HIV prevention among injecting drug users: Responses in developing and transitional countries.. Public Health Reports. 1998;113(Suppl. 1):170–181
  3. Bastos FI, Strathdee SA. Evaluating effectiveness of syringe exchange programmes: Current issues and future prospects. Social Science and Medicine. 2000;51(12):1771–1782
  4. Battjes RJ, Pickens RW, Haverkos HW, Sloboda Z. HIV risk factors among injecting drug users in five US cities. AIDS. 1994;8(5):681–687
  5. Benson BL, Leburn IS, Rasmussen DW. The impact of drug enforcement on crime: An investigation of the opportunity cost of police resources. Journal of Drug Issues. 2001;31(4):989–1006
  6. Best D, Strang J, Beswick T, Gossop M. Assessment of a concentrated high-profile police operation: No discernible impact on drug availability price or purity. British Journal of Criminology. 2001;41:738–745
  7. Beyrer C, Jittiwutikarn J, Teokul W, Razak MH, Suriyanon V, Srirak N, et al. Drug use, increasing incarceration rates, and prison-associated HIV risks in Thailand. AIDS and Behavior. 2003;7(2):153–161
  8. Blankenship KM, Koester S. Criminal law, policing policy, and HIV risk in female street sex workers and injection drug users. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics. 2002;30(4):548–559
  9. Bless R, Korf DJ, Freeman M. Open drug scenes: A cross-national comparison of concepts and urban strategies. European Addiction Research. 1995;1:128–138
  10. Bluthenthal RN, Kral AH, Lorvick J, Watters JK. Impact of law enforcement on syringe exchange programs: A look at Oakland and San Francisco. Medical Anthropology. 1997;18(1):61–83
  11. Bluthenthal RN, Lorvick J, Kral A, Erringer EA, Kahn JG. Collateral damage in the war on drugs: HIV risk behaviors among injection drug users. International Journal of Drug Policy. 1999;10:25–38
  12. Bourgois P. The moral economics of homeless heroin addicts: Confronting ethnography, HIV risk, and everyday violence in San Francisco shooting encampments. Substance Use and Misuse. 1998;33:2323–2351
  13. Broadhead RS, Heckathorn DD, Weakliem DL, Anthony DL, Madray H, Mills RJ, et al. Harnessing peer networks as an instrument for AIDS prevention: Results from a peer-driven intervention. Public Health Reports. 1998;113(Suppl. 1):42–57
  14. Broadhead RS, Kerr TH, Grund JP, Altice FL. Safer injection facilities in North America: Their place in public policy and health initiatives. Journal of Drug Issues. 2002;32(1):329–355
  15. Browenstein HH, Baci HRS, Goldstein PJ, Ryan PJ. The relationship of drugs, drug trafficking, and drug traffickers to homicide. Journal of Crime and Justice. 1992;15:25–44
  16. Brown L, Takeuchi D, Challoner K. Corneal abrasions associated with pepper spray exposure. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2000;18(3):271–272
  17. Brownstein HH, Crimmins SM, Spunt BJ. A conceptual framework for operationalizing the relationship between violence and drug market stability. Contemporary Drug Problems. 2000;27:867–890
  18. Burris S, Blankenship KM, Donoghoe M. Addressing the “risk environment” for injection drug users: The mysterious case of the missing cop. Milbank Quarterly. 2004;82(1):125–156
  19. Calsyn DA, Saxon AJ, Freeman G, Whittakar S. Needle-use practices among intravenous drug users in an area where needle purchase is legal. AIDS. 1991;5(2):187–193
  20. Cartwright WS. Cost–benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis of drug abuse treatment services. Evaluation Review. 1988;22(5):609–636
  21. Case P, Meehan T, Jones TS. Arrests and incarceration of injection drug users for syringe possession in Massachusetts: Implications for HIV prevention. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 1998;18(Suppl. 1):71–75
  22. Caulkins JP. Thinking about displacement in drug markets: Why observing change of venue isn’t enough. Journal of Drug Issues. 1992;22(1, Winter):17–30
  23. Caulkins JP. Local drug markets response to focused police enforcement. Operations Research. 1993;41(5):848–863
  24. Caulkins JP, Larson RC, Rich TF. Geography's impact on the success of focused local drug enforcement operations. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences. 1993;27:119–130
  25. Caulkins JP, MacCoun R. Limited rationality and the limits of supply reduction. Journal of Drug Issues. 2003;33(2, Spring):433–464
  26. Celentano DD, Vlahov D, Cohn S, Anthony JC, Solomon L, Nelson KE. Risk factors for shooting gallery use and cessation among intravenous drug users. American Journal of Public Health. 1991;81(10):1291–1295
  27. In:  Chaiken MR editors. Street-level drug enforcement. Washington: National Institute of Justice; 1988;
  28. Chaisson RE, Moss AR, Onishi R, Osmond D, Carlson JR. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in heterosexual intravenous drug users in San Francisco. American Journal of Public Health. 1987;77(2):169–172
  29. Chattterton, M., Gibson, G., Gilman, M., Godfrey, C., Sutton, M., & Wright, A. (1995). Performance indicators for local anti-drugs strategies: A preliminary analysis (No. Crime Detection and Prevention Series, Paper #62). London: Home Office Police Research Group.
  30. Chitwood DD, Griffin DK, Comerford M, Page JB, Trapido EJ, Lai S, et al. Risk factors for HIV-1 seroconversion among injection drug users: A case–control study. American Journal of Public Health. 1995;85(11):1538–1542
  31. Conviser R, Rutledge JH. Can public policies limit the spread of HIV among IV drug users. Journal of Drug Issues. 1989;19:113–128
  32. Cooper H, Moore L, Gruskin S, Krieger N. Characterizing perceived police violence: Implications for public health. American Journal of Public Health. 2004;94(7):1109–1118
  33. Cornish D, Clarke R. Understanding crime displacement: An application of rational choice theory. Criminology. 1987;25:933–947
  34. Cotten-Oldenburg NU, Carr P, DeBoer JM, Collison EK, Novotny G. Impact of pharmacy-based syringe access on injection practices among injecting drug users in Minnesota, 1998 to 1999. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 1999;27(2):183–192
  35. Curtis R, Friedman SR, Neaigus A, Jose B, Goldstein M, Ildefonso G. Street-level drug markets: Network structure and HIV risk. Social Networks. 1995;17:229–249
  36. Curtis R, Wendel T. Toward the development of a typology of illegal drug markets. In:  Hough M,  Natarajan M editor. Illegal drug markets: From research to policy. Monsey, NJ: Criminal Justice Press; 2000;p. 121–152
  37. Darke, S., & Ross, J. (1998). Heroin-related deaths in South Western Sydney (No. Technical Report No. 52). Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre.
  38. Darke S, Ross J, Hall W. Overdose among heroin users in Sydney Australia: I. Prevalence and correlates of non-fatal overdose. Addiction. 1996;91(3):405–411
  39. Davidson PJ, Ochoa KC, Hahn JA, Evans JL, Moss AR. Witnessing heroin-related overdoses: The experiences of young injectors in San Francisco. Addiction. 2002;97(12):1511–1516
  40. Davis, C. B. S., Metzger, D., Becher, J., & Lynch, K. (in press). Effects of an intensive street-level police intervention on syringe exchange program utilization: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. American Journal of Public Health.
  41. Des Jarlais DC. Structural interventions to reduce HIV transmission among injecting drug users. AIDS. 2000;14(Suppl. 1):41–46
  42. Des Jarlais DC, Friedman SR. Shooting galleries and AIDS: Infection probabilities and ‘tough’ policies. American Journal of Public Health. 1990;80(2):142–144
  43. Diaz T, Vlahov D, Hadden B, Edwards V. Needle and syringe acquisition among young injection drug users in Harlem, New York City. National HIV Prevention Conference. 1999;654
  44. Dixon D, Coffin P. Zero tolerance policing of illegal drug markets. Drug and Alcohol Review. 1999;18:477–486
  45. Dixon D, Maher L. Anh Hai: Policing culture and social exclusion in a street heroin market. Policing & Society. 2002;12(2):93–110
  46. Dorn N, Murji K. Low level drug enforcement. International Journal of the Sociology of Law. 1992;20:159–171
  47. Dorn N, South N. Drug markets and law enforcement. British Journal of Criminology. 1990;30(2, Spring):171–188
  48. Dovey K, Fitzgerald J, Choi Y. Safety becomes danger: Dilemmas of drug-use in public space. Health and Place. 2001;7(4):319–331
  49. Drucker E. Drug prohibition and public health: 25 years of evidence. Public Health Reports. 1999;114(1):14–29
  50. Edmunds, M., Hough, M., & Urquia, N. (1996). Tackling local drug markets. London: Home Office.
  51. Erickson PG. Drugs, violence and public health: What does the harm reduction approach have to offer. Vancouver: Fraser Institute; 2001;
  52. Forell, S., & Price, L. (1997). Using harm reduction policing within drug law enforcement in the NSW Police Services, Australia. Retrieved November 14, 2004, from https://www.drugtext.org/library/articles/forell.htm.
  53. Friedman SR, Kottiri BJ, Neaigus A, Curtis R, Vermund SH, Des Jarlais DC. Network-related mechanisms may help explain long-term HIV-1 seroprevalence levels that remain high but do not approach population-group saturation [in process citation]. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2000;152(10):913–922
  54. Frost L, Tchertkov V. Prisoner risk taking in the Russian Federation. AIDS, Education and Prevention. 2002;14(Suppl. B):7–23
  55. Fuller CM, Vlahov D, Latkin CA, Ompad DC, Celentano DD, Strathdee SA. Social circumstances of initiation of injection drug use and early shooting gallery attendance: Implications for HIV intervention among adolescent and young adult injection drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Retrovirology. 2003;32(1):86–93
  56. Gleghorn AA, Jones TS, Doherty MC, Celentano DD, Vlahov D. Acquisition and use of needles and syringes by injecting drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Retrovirology. 1995;10(1):97–103
  57. Goldstein H. Problem-oriented policing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press; 1990;
  58. Goldstein PJ. Drugs and violent crimes. In:  Weiner NA,  Wolfgang ME editor. Pathways to criminal violence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1989;
  59. Greene L. Policing places with drug problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1996;
  60. Grund JP, Blanken P, Adriaans NF, Kaplan CD, Barendregt C, Meeuwsen M. Reaching the unreached: Targeting hidden IDU populations with clean needles via known user groups. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 1992;24(1):41–47
  61. Grund JP, Heckathorn DD, Broadhead RS, Anthony DL. In eastern Connecticut, IDUs purchase syringes from pharmacies but don’t carry syringes. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Retrovirology. 1995;10(1):104–105
  62. Grund JP, Stern LS, Kaplan CD, Adriaans NF, Drucker E. Drug use contexts and HIV-consequences: The effect of drug policy on patterns of everyday drug use in Rotterdam and the Bronx. British Journal of Addiction. 1992;87(3):381–392
  63. Havis S, Best D. Drug-related deaths in police custody (1997–2003) a police complaints authority study. London: Police Complaints Authority; 2003;
  64. Heinemann A, Miyaishi S, Iwersen S, Schmoldt A, Puschel K. Body-packing as cause of unexpected sudden death. Forensic Science International. 1998;92(1):1–10
  65. Hough M. Drug user treatment within a criminal justice context. Substance Use and Misuse. 2002;37(8–10):985–996
  66. Hough M, Edmunds M. Tackling drug markets: An eclectic approach. Studies on Crime & Crime Prevention. 1999;8(1):107–131
  67. Hough M, Natarajan M. Introduction: Illegal drug markets, research and policy. In:  Hough M,  Natarajan M editor. Illegal drug markets: From research to policy. Monsey, NJ: Criminal Justice Press; 2000;p. 1–18
  68. Human Rights Watch. (2003a). Locked doors: The human rights of people living with HIV/AIDS in China (Vol. 14 (7C)). New York: Human Rights Watch.
  69. Human Rights Watch. (2003b). Ravaging the vulnerable: Abuses against persons at high risk of HIV in Bangladesh (Vol. 15 (6C)). New York: Human Rights Watch.
  70. Human Rights Watch. (2004). Not enough graves: The war on drugs, HIV/AIDS, and violations of human rights in Thailand (Vol. 16 (8C)). New York: Human Rights Watch.
  71. Jacobson J. Policing drug hot-spots. London: Home Office; 1999;
  72. Johnson BD, Hamid A, Sanabria H. Emerging models of crack distribution. In:  Meiczkowski T editors. Drugs, crime and social policy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon; 1992;
  73. Kemmesies, U. (1999). Final Report: The open drug scene and the safe injection room offers in Frankfurt am Main.
  74. Kerr T, Kaplan K, Suwannawong P, Jurgens R, Wood E. The global fund to fight AIDS tuberculosis and Malaria: Funding for unpopular public-health programmes. Lancet. 2004;364(9428):11–12
  75. Kerr T, Wood E, Small D, Palepu A, Tyndall MW. Potential use of safer injecting facilities among injection drug users in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2003;169(8):759–763
  76. Kersten, J. (2000, September 23). Drug enforcement policing. Paper presented at Illegal Drug Use in North America and Europe: Comparative Issues, Problems and Policies, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
  77. Kirschner RH. Police brutality in the USA. Lancet. 1997;350(9088):1395
  78. Kleiman MAR. Against excess: Drug policy for results. New York: Basic Books; 1992;
  79. Knutsson J. Swedish drug markets and drugs policy. In:  Hough M,  Natarajan M editor. Illegal drug markets: From research to policy. Monsey, NJ: Criminal Justice Press; 2000;p. 179–202
  80. Koester SK. Copping, running, and paraphernalia laws: Contextual variables and needle risk behavior among injection drug users in Denver. Human Organization. 1994;53(3):287–295
  81. Lachance N, Lamothe F, Bruneau J, Franco E, Vincelette J, Soto J. Injecting and sharing IV equipment in different cities: A potential risk for HIV dissemination. International Conference on AIDS. 1996;11(1):351;(abstract no. Tu.C.2501)
  82. Latkin C, Mandell W, Vlahov D, Oziemkowska M, Knowlton A, Celentano D. My place, your place, and no place: Behavior settings as a risk factor for HIV-related injection practices of drug users in Baltimore Maryland. American Journal of Community Psychology. 1994;22(3):415–430
  83. Lee M. London: “Community damage limitation” through policing. In:  Dorn N,  Jepsen J,  Savona E editor. European drug policy and enforcement. Basingstoke: Macmillan; 1996;
  84. Link B, Phelan MJ. Social conditions and fundamental causes of disease. Journal of Health & Social Behavior. 1995;38:80–94
  85. Lough G. Law enforcement and harm reduction: Mutually exclusive or mutually compatible. International Journal of Drug Policy. 1998;3(1):169–173
  86. Maher L, Dixon D. Policing and public health: Law enforcement and harm minimization in a street-level drug market. British Journal of Criminology. 1999;39(4):488–512
  87. Maher L, Dixon D. The cost of crackdowns: Policing Cabramatta's heroin market. Current Issues in Criminal Justice. 2001;13(1):5–22
  88. May T, Harocopos A, Turnbull PJ, Hough M. Serving Up: The impact of low-level police enforcement on drug markets. London: Home Office; 2000;
  89. May T, Hough M. Illegal dealings: The impact of low-level police enforcement on drug markets. European Journal on Criminal Policy & Research. 2001;9(2):137–162
  90. May T, Hough M. Illegal dealings: The impacts of low-level police enforcement on drug markets. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research. 2001;9:137–162
  91. McGregor C, Darke S, Ali R, Christie P. Experience of non-fatal overdose among heroin users in Adelaide, Australia: Circumstances and risk perceptions. Addiction. 1998;93(5):701–711
  92. Midford R, Acres J, Lenton S, Loxley W, Boots K. Cops, drugs and the community: Establishing consultative harm reduction structures in two Western Australian locations. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2002;13(3):181–188
  93. Mieczkowski T. Geeking up and throwing down: Heroin street life in Detroit. Criminology. 1986;24(4):645–666
  94. Miller CL, Spittal PM, LaLiberte N, Li K, Tyndall MW, O'Shaughnessy MV, et al. Females experiencing sexual and drug vulnerabilities are at elevated risk for HIV infection among youth who use injection drugs. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 2002;30(3):335–341
  95. Milliken D. Death by restraint. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 1998;158(12):1611–1612
  96. Moore, M. H. (1976). Buy and bust: The effective regulation of an illicit market in heroin. Lexington, MA: Heath.
  97. Murji, K. (1998). Policing drugs. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  98. Murphy EL, DeVita D, Liu H, Vittinghoff E, Leung P, Ciccarone DH, et al. Risk factors for skin and soft-tissue abscesses among injection drug users: A case–control study. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2001;33(1):35–40
  99. Natarajan M, Clarke R, Johnson BD. Telephones as facilitators of drug dealing: A research agenda. European Journal of Criminal Policy and Research. 1995;3(3):137–154
  100. In:  Natarajan M,  Hough M editor. Illegal drug markets: From research to prevention policy. Vol. 11:Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press; 2000;
  101. Neaigus A, Friedman SR, Curtis R, Des Jarlais DC, Furst RT, Jose B, et al. The relevance of drug injectors’ social and risk networks for understanding and preventing HIV infection. Social Science and Medicine. 1994;38(1):67–78
  102. Newham, G. (2003). Preventing police corruption: Lessons from the New York Police Department. Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation: http://www.csvr.org.za/papers/papnypd.htm.
  103. Norris C, Armstrong G. The maximum surveillance society: The rise of CCTV. Oxford: Berg; 1999;
  104. Palepu A, Tyndall MW, Leon H, Muller J, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, et al. Hospital utilization and costs in a cohort of injection drug users. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2001;165(4):415–420
  105. Paoline EA. Shedding light on police culture: An examination of officers’ occupational attitudes. Police Quarterly. 2004;7(2):205–236
  106. Pearson G, Hobbs D. Middle market drug distribution. London: Home Office; 2001;
  107. Polich, J. M., Ellickson, P. L., Reuter, P., & Kalion, J. P. (1984). Strategies for controlling adolescent drug use. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
  108. Pollanen MS, Chiasson DA, Cairns JT, Young JG. Unexpected death related to restraint for excited delirium: A retrospective study of deaths in police custody and in the community. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 1998;158(12):1603–1607
  109. Prenzler T, Ronken C. Police integrity testing in Australia. Criminal Justice. 2001;1(3):319–342
  110. Prenzler T, Ronken C. A survey of innovations in the development and maintenance of ethical standards by Australian police departments. Police Practice and Research. 2003;4(2):149–161
  111. Reardon J, Warren N, Keilch R, Jenssen D, Wise F, Brunner W. Are HIV-infected injection drug users taking HIV tests. American Journal of Public Health. 1993;83(10):1414–1417
  112. Reay DT, Eisele JW. Death from law enforcement neck holds. American Journal of Forensic Medical Pathology. 1982;3(3):253–258
  113. Reuter, P., & Kleiman, M. A. R. (1986). Risks and prices: An economic analysis of drug enforcement. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research (Vol. 7, pp. 289–340). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  114. Reuter, P., MacCoun, R., Murphy, Abrahamsen, A., & Simon, B. (1990). Money from crime: A study of the economics of drug retailing (No. R-3894_RF). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
  115. Rhodes T. The ‘risk environment’: A framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2002;13(2):85–94
  116. Rhodes T, Mikhailova L, Sarang A, Lowndes CM, Rylkov A, Khutorskoy M, et al. Situational factors influencing drug injecting, risk reduction and syringe exchange in Togliatti City Russian Federation: A qualitative study of micro risk environment. Social Science and Medicine. 2003;57(1):39–54
  117. Ross T. Using and dealing in Calle 19: A high risk street community in central Bogota. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2002;13(1):45–56
  118. Roy E, Haley N, Leclerc P, Cedras L, Blais L, Boivin JF. Drug injection among street youths in Montreal: Predictors of initiation. Journal of Urban Health. 2003;80(1):92–105
  119. Ruttenber AJ, Lawler-Heavner J, Yin M, Wetli CV, Hearn WL, Mash DC. Fatal excited delirium following cocaine use: Epidemiologic findings provide new evidence for mechanisms of cocaine toxicity. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 1997;42(1):25–31
  120. Rydell CP, Caulkins JP, Everingham SE. Enforcement or treatment? Modeling the relative efficacy of alternatives for controlling cocaine. Operations Research. 1996;44(5):687–695
  121. Schneider CL. Racism drug policy and AIDS. Political Science Quarterly. 1998;113(3):427–446
  122. Seal KH, Downing M, Kral AH, Singleton-Banks S, Hammond JP, Lorvick J, et al. Attitudes about prescribing take-home naloxone to injection drug users for the management of heroin overdose: A survey of street-recruited injectors in the San Francisco Bay Area. Journal of Urban Health. 2003;80(2):291–301
  123. Sergeev B, Karpets A, Sarang A, Tikhonov M. Prevalence and circumstances of opiate overdose among injection drug users in the Russian Federation. Journal of Urban Health. 2003;80(2):212–219
  124. Sherman LW, Rogan DP. Deterrent effects on of police raids on crack houses: A randomized, controlled experiment. Justice Quarterly. 1995;12(4):755–781
  125. Sherman LW, Wiesburd D. General deterrent effects of police patrol in crime “hot spots”: A randomized, controlled trial. Justice Quarterly. 1995;12(4):625–648
  126. Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette, J., Wood, E., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P. M. (in press). Impact of intensified police activity upon injection drug users in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside: Evidence from an ethnographic investigation. International Journal of Drug Policy.
  127. Smith BW, Novak KJ, Frank J, Travis LF. Multijurisdictional drug task forces: An analysis of impacts. Journal of Criminal Justice. 2000;28(6):543–556
  128. Smith MR. Police-led crackdowns and clean-ups: An evaluation of a crime control initiative in Richmond Virginia. Crime & Delinquency. 2001;47(1):60–83
  129. Sterk CE, Elifson KW. Fluctuating drug markets and HIV risk taking: Female drug users and their relationship with drug markets. Medical Anthropology. 2000;18(4):439–455
  130. Taussig JA, Weinstein B, Burris S, Jones TS. Syringe laws and pharmacy regulations are structural constraints on HIV prevention in the US. AIDS. 2000;14(Suppl. 1):47–51
  131. Taylor B, Brownstein HH. Toward the operationalization of drug markets stability: An illustration using arrestee data from crack cocaine markets in four urban communities. Journal of Drug Issues. 2003;33(1):173–198
  132. Weatherburn D, Lind B. The impact of law enforcement activity on a heroin market. Addiction. 1997;92(5):(discussion 611-553)
  133. Weinstein B, Toce P, Katz D, Ryan LL. Peer education of pharmacists and supplying pharmacies with IDU packets to increase injection drug users’ access to sterile syringes in Connecticut. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 1998;18(Suppl. 1):S146–S147
  134. Weisburd D, Green L. Policing drug hot spots: The Jersey City drug market analysis experiment. Justice Quarterly. 1995;12:711–735
  135. Welti CV, FIshbain DA. Cocaine-induced psychosis and sudden death in recreational cocaine users. Journal of Forensic Science. 1985;30(3):873–880
  136. Wenger LD, Rosenbaum M. Drug treatment on demand—Not. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 1994;26(1):1–11
  137. Wetli CV, Rao A, Rao VJ. Fatal heroin body packing. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 1997;18(3):312–318
  138. Williams H. Drug control strategies of United States law enforcement. Bulletin on Narcotics. 1990;42:27–39
  139. Wodak A. Drug laws war on drugs does more harm than good. British Medical Journal. 2001;323(7317):866
  140. Wood E, Kerr T, Small W, Jones J, Schechter MT, Tyndall MW. The impact of police presence on access to needle exchange programs. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 2003;34(1):116–118
  141. Wood E, Kerr T, Spittal PM, Tyndall MW, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT. The healthcare and fiscal costs of the illicit drug use epidemic: The impact of conventional drug control strategies and the impact of a comprehensive approach. British Columbia Medical Journal. 2003;45(3):130–136
  142. Wood E, Kerr T, Small W, Li K, Marsh D, Montaner JS, et al. Changes in public order after the opening of a medically supervised safer injecting facility for illicit injection drug users. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2004;171:731–734
  143. Wood E, Spittal PM, Small W, Kerr T, Li K, Hogg RS, et al. Displacement of Canada's largest public illicit drug market in response to a police crackdown. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2004;170(10):1551–1556
  144. Wood E, Tyndall MW, Spittal PM, Li K, Anis AH, Hogg RS, et al. Impact of supply-side policies for control of illicit drugs in the face of the AIDS and overdose epidemics: Investigation of a massive heroin seizure. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2003;168(2):165–169
  145. Wood RA, Zettel P, Stewart W. Harm reduction nursing practice: The Dr Peter Centre Centre supervised injection project. Canadian Nurse. 2003;99(5):20–24
  146. Worden RE, Bynum TS, Frank J. Police crackdowns on drug abuse and trafficking. In:  MacKenzie DL,  Uchida CD editor. Drugs and crime. Sage: Thousand Oaks; 1994;
  147. Zakrison TL, Hamel PA, Hwang SW. Homeless people's trust and interactions with police and paramedics. Journal of Urban Health. 2004;81(4):596–605
  148. Zhao J, Lovrich NP, Robinson TH. Community policing—Is it changing the basic functions of policing? Findings from a longitudinal study of 200+ municipal police agencies. Journal of Criminal Justice. 2001;29:365–377
  149. Zimmer L. Proactive policing against street-level drug trafficking. American Journal of Police. 1990;9(1):43–74
  150. Zolopa AR, Hahn JA, Gorter R, Miranda J, Wlodarczyk D, Peterson J, et al. HIV and tuberculosis infection in San Francisco's homeless adults. Prevalence and risk factors in a representative sample. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1994;272(6):455–461
  151. Zule WA. Risk and reciprocity: HIV and the injection drug user. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 1992;24(3):243–249

PII: S0955-3959(05)00056-3

doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2005.04.005

International Journal of Drug Policy
Volume 16, Issue 4 , Pages 210-220 , August 2005