International Journal of Drug Policy
Volume 20, Issue 1 , Pages 4-13 , January 2009

Drugscapes and the role of place and space in injection drug use-related HIV risk environments

  • Barbara Tempalski

      Affiliations

    • National Development and Research Institutes, Inc., 71 West 23rd Street, 8th Floor, New York, NY 10010, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +1 212 845 4474; fax: +1 917 438 0894.
    • ,
  • Hilary McQuie

      Affiliations

    • Regional Director of Harm Reduction Coalition, Oakland, CA, USA

Received 3 July 2007 ,Revised 22 January 2008 ,Accepted 6 February 2008.

References 

  1. Ahern J, Pickett KE, Selvin S, Abrams B. Preterm birth among African American and white women: A multilevel analysis of socioeconomic characteristics and cigarette smoking. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2003;57:606–611
  2. Aitken C, Moore D, Higgs D, Kelsall J, Kerger M. The impact of a police crackdown on a street drug scene: Evidence from the street. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2002;13:189–198
  3. Anderson R. Turning a new leaf: Difficult when cops rake you in. Seattle Times. 1991, May 9;G3
  4. Bastos FI, Barcellos C. A geografia social da AIDS no Brasil (The social geography of AIDS in Brazil). Revista de Saude Publica. 1995;29:52–62
  5. Bastos FI, Barcellos C, Lowndes CM, Friedman SR. Co-infection with malaria and HIV in injecting drug users in Brazil: A new challenge to public health?. Addiction. 1999;94:1165–1174
  6. Bell DC, Carlson JW, Richard AJ. The social ecology of drug use: A factor analysis of an urban environment. Substance Use and Misuse. 1988;33:2201–2217
  7. Bluthenthal RN, Kral AH, Lorvick J, Watters JK. Impact of law enforcement on syringe exchange programs: A look at Oakland and San Francisco. Medical Anthropology. 1997;18:61–83
  8. Bluthenthal RN, Kral AH, Erringer EA, Edlin BR. Drug paraphernalia laws and injection-related infectious disease risk among drug injectors. Drug Issues. 1999;22:1–16
  9. Bluthenthal RN, Lorvick J, Kral AH, Erringer EA, Kahn JG. Collateral damage in the war on drugs: HIV risk behaviors among injection drug users. International Journal of Drug Policy. 1999;10:25–38
  10. Bluthenthal RN, Malik MR, Grau LE, Singer M, Marshall P, Heimer R. Sterile syringe access conditions and variations in HIV risk among drug injectors in three cities. Society for the Study of Addiction. 2004;99:1136–1146
  11. Bourgois P, Lettiere M, Quesada J. Social misery and the sanctions of substance abuse: Confronting HIV risk among homeless heroin addicts in San Francisco. Social Problems. 1997;44:155–173
  12. Brady, J. E., Friedman, S. R., Cooper, H. L. F., Flom, P. L., Tempalski, B., & Gostnell, K. (in press). Estimating the prevalence of injection drug users in the US and in large US metropolitan areas from 1992–2002. Journal of Urban Health.
  13. Broadhead RS, Kerr T, Grund JPC, Altice FL. Safer injection facilities in North America: Their place in public policy and health initiatives. Journal of Drug Issues. 2002;32:347–348
  14. Brugal MT, Domingo-Salvany A, Maguire A, Cayla JA, Villalbi JR, Hartnoll R. A small area analysis estimating the prevalence of addiction to opioids in Barcelona, 1993. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1993;53:488–494
  15. Burris S, Vernick J, Ditzler A, Strathdee S. The legality of selling or giving syringes to injection drug users. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association. 2002;42:S13–S17
  16. China Ministry of Health. (2004). A joint assessment of HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment and care in China. A report by the State Council HIV/AIDS Working Committee Office and UN Theme Group on HIV/AIDS in China.
  17. Ciccarone D, Bourgois P. Explaining the geographic variation of HIV among injection drug users in the United States. Substance User & Misuse. 2003;38:2049–2063
  18. Cliff A, Smallman-Raynor M, Haggett P. Measles: An historic geography of a major human viral disease, from global expansion to local retreat. Oxford: Blackwell Reference; 1993;
  19. Cooper H. Police drug crackdowns and illicit-drug injectors’ health. Boston, MA: Harvard University; 2003;
  20. Cooper H, Moore L, Gruskin S, Krieger N. The impact of a police drug crackdown on drug injectors’ ability to practice harm reduction: A qualitative study. Social Science and Medicine. 2005;61:673–768
  21. Cooper HLF, Friedman S, Tempalski B, Friedman R, Keem M. Racial/ethnic disparities in injection drug use in 94 U.S. metropolitan statistical areas in 1998. Annals of Epidemiology. 2005;15:326–334
  22. Cooper H, Friedman SR, Tempalski B, Friedman R. Residential segregation and the prevalence of injection drug use among Black adult residents of US metropolitan areas. American Journal of Public Health. 2007;96:344–352
  23. Cresswell T. Place: A short introduction. Blackwell Publishing; 2004;
  24. Day, D. (1995). Drug arrests: Are blacks being targeted? Accessed June 12, 2007 from http://www.ndsn.org/april95/guest.html.
  25. Dear M, Wilton R, Gaber SL, Takahashi LM. Seeing people differently: The sociospatial construction of disability. Environment and Planning: Society and Space. 1997;15:455–480
  26. Des Jarlais DC. Research, politics, and needle exchange. American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90:1392–1394
  27. Des Jarlais DC, Friedman SR. Fifteen years of preventing HIV infection among injection drug users: What we have learned, what we have not learned, what we have done, what we have not done. Public Health Reports. 1998;113:182–188
  28. Des Jarlais D, Marmor M, Paone D, Titus S, Shi Q, Perlis T, et al. HIV incidence among syringe exchange participants in New York City. The Lancet. 1996;348:987–991
  29. Des Jarlais, D. C., Johnston, P., Friedmann, P., Kling, R., Liu, W., Ngu, D., et al. (2005). Patterns of HIV prevalence among injecting drug users in the cross-border area of Lang Son Province, Vietnam, and Ning Ming County, Guangxi Province, China. BMC Public Health, 5. Accessed May 23, 2007, http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2458-5-89.pdf.
  30. Diez-Roux AV. Multilevel analysis in public health research. Annual Review of Public Health. 2000;21:171–192
  31. Duncan C, Jones K, Moon G. Smoking and deprivation: Are there neighborhood effects?. Social Science and Medicine. 1999;48:497–505
  32. Egan T. Less crime, more criminals. New York Times; 1999, March 7;
  33. Farmer P. AIDS and accusation: Haiti and the geography of blame. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press; 1992;
  34. Fleissner, D., Fedan, N., Stotland, E., & Klinger, D. (1991). Community policing in Seattle: A descriptive study of the South Seattle Crime Reduction Project. Seattle Police Department and National Institute of Justice Grant Report.
  35. Foucault M. Madness and civilization: A history of insanity in the age of reason. New York: Vintage Books; 1965;
  36. Friedman SR, Perlis T, Des Jarlais DC. Laws prohibiting over-the-counter syringe sales to injection drug users: Relations to population density, HIV prevalence, and HIV incidence. American Journal of Public Health. 2001;91:791–793
  37. Friedman SR, Perlis T, Lynch J, Des Jarlais DC. Economic inequality, poverty, and laws against syringe access as predictors of metropolitan area rates of drug injection and HIV infection. In: Proceedings of the Global Research Network Meeting. Durban, South Africa. 2001;p. 147–149
  38. Friedman SR, Tempalski B, Cooper H, Perlis T, Keem M, Friedman R, et al. Estimating numbers of IDUs in metropolitan areas for structural analyses of community vulnerability and for assessing relative degrees of service provision for IDUs. Journal of Urban Health. 2004;8:377–400
  39. Friedman SR, Cooper HLF, Tempalski B, Keem M, Friedman R, Flom PL, et al. Relationships of deterrence and law enforcement to drug-related harms among drug injectors in U.S.A. metropolitan areas. AIDS. 2006;20:93–99
  40. Gilman SL. Disease and representation: Images of illness from madness to AIDS. Ithaca, NY: Guilford Press; 1988;
  41. Gould P. The slow plague: A geography of the AIDS pandemic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Press; 1993;
  42. Grund JPC, Stern LS, Kaplan CD, Adriaans NFP, Druncker E. Drug use contexts and HIV-consequences: The effect of drug policy on patterns of everyday drug use in Rotterdam and the Bronx. British Journal of Addiction. 1992;87:381–392
  43. Harrell AV, Peterson GE. Drugs, crime, and social isolation. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press; 1992;
  44. Herbert S. Policing space: Territoriality and the Los Angeles Police Department. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1997;
  45. Holmberg S. The estimated prevalence and incidence of HIV in 96 large U.S. metropolitan areas. American Journal of Public Health. 1996;86:642–654
  46. Hsing Y. An analysis of arrests regarding illegal drugs: The determinants and policy implications. American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 1996;55:53–60
  47. Hubbard P, Kitchin R, Valentine G. Key thinkers on space and place. London: Sage Publication; 2004;
  48. Hurley SF, Jolley DJ, Kaldor JM. Effectiveness of needle-exchange programs for prevention of HIV infection. The Lancet. 1997;21:1797–1800
  49. Joint United Nations Programmeme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and World Health Organization (WHO). (2006, December). AIDS epidemic update: Special report on the global AIDS epidemic.
  50. Kaplan GA, Pamuk ER, Lynch JW, Cohen RD, Balfour JL. Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: Analysis of mortality and potential pathways. British Medical Journal. 1996;312:999–1003
  51. Kawachi I, Berkman LF. Neighborhoods and Health. New York City: Oxford University Press; 2003;
  52. Kearns RA, Joseph AE. Space in its place: Developing the link in medical geography. Social Science and Medicine. 1993;37:711–717
  53. Kennedy BP, Kawachi I, Prothrow-Suth D. Income distribution and mortality: Cross sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States. British Medical Journal. 1996;312:1004–1007
  54. Kerr T. Safe injection facilities. Harm reduction action society. Vancouver, Canada: Harm Reduction Action Society; 2000;
  55. Latkin CA, Williams C, Wang J, Curry AD. Neighborhood social disorder as a determinant of drug injection behaviors: A structural equation modeling approach. Health Psychology. 2005;24:96–100
  56. Lefebvre H. The production of space, D. Nicholson-Smith trans.. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; 1991;
  57. Lynch JW, Kaplan GA, Pamuk E, Cohen RD, Heck K, Balfour JL, et al. Income inequality and mortality in metropolitan areas of the United States. American Journal of Public Health. 1998;88:1074–1080
  58. Maas B, Fairbairn N, Kerr T, Li K, Montaner JSG, Wood E. Neighborhood and HIV infection among IDU: Place of residence independently predicts HIV infection among a cohort of injection drug users. Health & Place. 2007;13:432–439
  59. MacDonald M, Law M, Kaldor J, Hales J, Dore G. Effectiveness of needle and syringe programmes for preventing HIV transmission. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2000;14:351–352
  60. Maher L, Dixon D. Policing and public health: Law enforcement and harm minimization in a street-level drug market. British Journal of Criminology. 1999;39:488–512
  61. Malpas JE. Place and experience: A philosophical topography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999;
  62. McQuie H. Boomtown & busts: Unlayering Seattle's “drugscapes.”. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington; 2000;
  63. Musto DF. The American disease: Origins of narcotic control. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999;
  64. Nathanson C. Disease prevention as social change: Toward a theory in public health. Population and Development Review. 1996;22:609–637
  65. National Institutes on Drug Abuse, the Centers for Disease Control, and the Department of Health and Human Services. (2004). Evaluation of the national youth anti-drug media campaign: 2004 report of findings.
  66. National Institutes of Health. Interventions to Prevent HIV Risk Behaviors . NIH Consensus Statement. 1997;15:1–41
  67. O’Campo P, Xue X, Wang MC, O’Brien , Caughy M. Neighborhood risk factors for low birthweight in Baltimore: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Public Health. 1997;87:1113–1118
  68. Ohiri, K., Claeson, M., RAzzaghi, E., Nassirimanesh, B., Afshar, P., & Power, R. (2006). HIV/AIDS prevention among injection drug users: Learning from harm reduction in Iran. Accessed January 15, 2007, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSAREGTOPHIVAIDS/Resources/LancetHarmReductionIran.pdf.
  69. Petronis KR, Anthony JC. A different kind of contextual effect: Geographic clustering of cocaine incidence in the USA. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. 2003;57:893–900
  70. Reynolds, A. (2007). A global overview of safe injection facilities: Key policies and practices. The DOPE Project, alliance for saving lives. Presented at Safe Injection Facilities Symposium, Harm Reduction Coalition, Oakland, CA.
  71. Rhodes T, Mikhailova L, Sarang A, Lowndes CM, Rylkov A, Khutorskoy M, et al. Situational factors influencing drug injecting, risk reduction and syringe exchange in Togliatti City, Russian Federation: A qualitative study of micro risk environment. Social Science & Medicine. 2003;57:39–54
  72. Rhodes T, Singer M, Bourgois P, Friedman SR, Strathdee SA. The social structural production of HIV risk among injecting drug users. Social Science & Medicine. 2005;61:1026–1044
  73. Rhodes T, Platt L, Sarang A, Vlasov A, Mikhailova L, Monaghan G. Street policing, injecting drug use and harm reduction in a Russian City: A qualitative study of police perspectives. Journal of Urban Health. 2006;83:911–925
  74. Rhodes T, Kimber J, Small W, Fitzgerald J, Kerr T, Hickman M, et al. Public injecting and the need for ‘safer environment interventions’ in the reduction of drug-related harm. Addition. 2006;101:1384–1393
  75. Rhymes, E. (2006). Turning racism upside down to see it right side up. The Black Commentator, 172, 1–3. Accessed November 2006, http://www.blackcommentator.com/172/172_guest_rhymes_racism_upside_down.html.
  76. Sack RD. Human territoriality: In theory and history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1986;
  77. Shaw SJ. Public citizens, marginalized communities: The struggle for syringe exchange in Springfield, Massachusetts. Medical Anthropology. 2006;25:31–63
  78. Sibley D. Geographies of exclusion. London, England: Routledge; 1995;
  79. Singer M, Stopka T, Siano C, Springer K, Barton G, Khoshnood K, et al. The social geography of AIDS and hepatitis risk: Qualitative approaches for assessing local differences in sterile-syringe access among injection drug users. American Journal of Public Health. 2000;90:1049–1056
  80. Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff A. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): The global spread of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2). In:  Thomas RW editors. Spatial epidemiology. London: Pion; 1990;
  81. Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff A, Haggett P. The London international atlas of AIDS. Oxford: Blackwell Reference; 1992;
  82. Soja EW. The socio-spatial dialectic. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 1980;70
  83. Szwarcwald C, Ayres de Castilho E, Lauria L, Durovni B, Bastos FI. The spatial spread of AIDS in the city of Rio de Janeiro: The role of the district poverty levels among women: Geography and medicine. In:  Flahault A,  Toubiana L,  Valleron AJ editor. Geography and medicine: Geomed ‘99. Proceedings of the second international workshop on geomedical systems. Paris. 2000, November 22–23;
  84. Takahashi LM. Homelessness, AIDS, and stigmatisation. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1998;
  85. Tempalski B. Placing the dynamics of syringe exchange programs in the United States. Health & Place. 2007;13(2):417–431
  86. Tempalski B, Flom PL, Friedman SR, Des Jarlais DC, Friedman JJ, McKnight C, et al. Social and political factors predicting the presence of syringe exchange programs in 96 Metropolitan areas in the United States. American Journal of Public Health. 2007;97(3):437–447
  87. Tempalski B, Friedman R, Keem M, Cooper H, Friedman SR. NIMBY localism and national inequitable exclusion alliances: The case of syringe exchange programs in the United States. Geoforum. 2007;38:1250–1263
  88. Thailand Health Profile, Bureau of Policy and Strategy, Ministry of Health. (2001–2004). Accessed December 12, 2006, http://eng.moph.go.th/HealthSit.
  89. United States Department of Justice. (2006, November). Prisoners in 2005. Washington, C.D., Office of Justice Programs, Bureau if Justice Statistics Bulletin. NCJ 215092, Table 12, p. 9.
  90. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1993). Needle exchange programs: Research suggests promise as an AIDS prevention strategy. Report to the Chairman, Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control. Washington, DC: US General Accounting Office.
  91. Wallace R. Urban desertification, public health and public order: “Planned shrinkage”, violent death, substance abuse and AIDS in the Bronx. Social Science and Medicine. 1990;31:801–813
  92. Wallace JM. Explaining race differences in adolescent and young drug use: The role of racialized social systems. Drugs and Society. 1999;14:21–36
  93. Wallace D, Wallace R. A plague on your houses. New York: Verso; 1998;
  94. Wallace R, Huang Y, Gould P, Wallace D. The hierarchical diffusion of AIDS and violent crime among U.S. metropolitan regions: Inner-city decay, stochastic resonance and reversal of the mortality transition. Social Science and Medicine. 1997;44:935–947
  95. Wells K, Klap R, Koike A, Sherbourne C. Ethnic disparities in unmet need for alcoholism, drug abuse, and mental health care. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2001;158:2027–2032
  96. Wiessing, L. (2000). Injecting drug users in Europe: Towards an educational approach. Annual report on the state of the drugs problem in the European union: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.
  97. Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982, March). Broken windows. The Atlantic Monthly.
  98. Wilton RD. Grounding hierarchies of acceptance: The social construction of disability in NIMBY conflicts. Urban Geography. 2000;215:86–608
  99. Wood E, Kerr T, Small W, Li K, Marsh DC, Montaner JSG, et al. Changes in public order after the opening of a medically supervised safer injecting facility for illicit injection drug users. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2004;171:731–734
  100. Wood E, Tyndall MW, Zhang R, Montaner SG, Kerr T. Rate of detoxification service use and its impact among a cohort of supervised injecting facility users. Addiction. 2007;102:916–919
  101. Wylie JL, Shah L, Jolly A. Incorporating geographic settings into a social network analysis of injection drug use and blood borne pathogen prevalence. Health & Place. 2007;13:617–628

PII: S0955-3959(08)00033-9

doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.02.002

International Journal of Drug Policy
Volume 20, Issue 1 , Pages 4-13 , January 2009

Article Tools