International Journal of Drug Policy
Volume 21, Issue 5 , Pages 347-358 , September 2010

Meth/amphetamine use and associated HIV: Implications for global policy and public health

  • Louisa Degenhardt

      Affiliations

    • Secretariat of the Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and injecting drug use; Professor of Epidemiology; and Assistant Director.
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9385 0230; fax: +61 2 9385 0222.
  • ,
  • Bradley Mathers

      Affiliations

    • Secretariat of the Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and injecting drug use.
  • ,
  • Mauro Guarinieri

      Affiliations

    • Civil Society Officer, Asia Unit, The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria.
  • ,
  • Samiran Panda

      Affiliations

    • Deputy Director, Epidemiology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (Indian Council of Medical Research) and Society for Positive Atmosphere and Related Support to HIV/AIDS (SPARSHA), India.
  • ,
  • Benjamin Phillips

      Affiliations

    • Researcher Officer, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia.
  • ,
  • Steffanie A. Strathdee

      Affiliations

    • Professor and Harold Simon Chair Chief, Division of International Health and Cross-Cultural Medicine, University of California San Diego, United States.
  • ,
  • Mark Tyndall

      Affiliations

    • Program Director, Epidemiology, British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Canada.
  • ,
  • Lucas Wiessing

      Affiliations

    • Principal Scientist Infectious Diseases Epidemiology, Crime and markets unit, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Portugal.
  • ,
  • Alex Wodak

      Affiliations

    • Director, Alcohol and Drug Service, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, Australia.
  • ,
  • John Howard

      Affiliations

    • Senior Lecturer, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia.
  • ,
  • the Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and injecting drug use

Received 29 May 2009 ,Revised 30 October 2009 ,Accepted 24 November 2009.

References 

  1. AbuMadini M, Rahim S, Al-Zahrani M, Al-Johi A. Two decades of treatment seeking for substance use disorders in Saudi Arabia: Trends and patterns in a rehabilitation facility in Dammam. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2008;97:231–236
  2. Adamson S, Sellman D, Deering D, Robertson P, de Zwart K. Alcohol and drug treatment population profile: a comparison of 1998 and 2004 data in New Zealand. New Zealand Medical Journal. 2006;119(1244):U2284;[see comment]
  3. Aden A, Dimba EAO, Ndolo UM, Chindia ML. Socio-economic effects of khat chewing in north eastern Kenya. East African Medical Journal. 2006;83(3):69–73
  4. Ahmad K. Asia grapples with spreading amphetamine abuse. Lancet. 2003;361(9372):1878–1879
  5. Ahmadi J, Benrazavi L. Substance use among Iranian cardiovascular patients. European Journal of Medical Research. 2002;7(2):89–92
  6. Ahmadi J, Benrazavi L. Substance use among Iranian nephrologic patients. American Journal of Nephrology. 2002;22(1):11–13
  7. Ahmadi J, Fakoor A, Pezeshkian P, Khoshnood R, Malekpour A. Substance use among Iranian psychiatric inpatients. Psychological Reports. 2001;89(2):363–365
  8. Al-Habori M. The potential adverse effects of habitual use of Catha edulis (khat). Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 2005;4(6):1145–1154
  9. Al-Motarreb A, Baker K, Broadley KJ. Khat: pharmacological and medical aspects and its social use in Yemen. Phytotherapy Research. 2002;16(5):403–413
  10. Allam H. A drive with a Saudi woman. Middle East Diary. 2007;Retrieved from http://washingtonbureau.typepad.com/cairo/2007/05/a_drive_with_a_.html
  11. In:  Baker A,  Lee N,  Jenner J editor. Models of intervention and care for psychostimulant users. NDS Monograph Series No. 51. 2nd ed.. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing; 2004;
  12. Beyrer C, Razak MH, Jittiwutikarn J, Suriyanon V, Vongchak T, Srirak N, et al. Methamphetamine users in northern Thailand: Changing demographics and risks for HIV and STD among treatment-seeking substance abusers. International Journal of STD & AIDS. 2004;15:697–704
  13. Bohning D, Suppawattanabodee B, Kusolvisitku W, Viwatwongkasem C. Estimating the number of drug users in Bangkok 2001: A capture–recapture approach using repeated entries in one list. European Journal of Epidemiology. 2004;19:1075–1083
  14. Bolding G, Hart G, Sherr L, Elford J. Use of crystal methamphetamine among gay men in London. Addiction. 2006;101(11):1622–1630
  15. Braine N, Des Jarlais DC, Goldblatt C, Zadoretzky C, Turner C. HIV risk behavior among amphetamine injectors at U.S. syringe exchange programs. AIDS Education & Prevention. 2005;17(6):515–524
  16. Brouwer KC, Case P, Ramos R, Magis-Rodriguez C, Bucardo J, Patterson TL, et al. Trends in production, trafficking, and consumption of methamphetamine and cocaine in Mexico. Substance Use & Misuse. 2006;41(5):707–727
  17. Buavirat A, Page-Shafer K, van Griensven GJP, Mandel JS, Evans J, Chuaratanaphong J, et al. Risk of prevalent HIV infection associated with incarceration among injecting drug users in Bangkok. Thailand: Case–control study. British Medical Journal. 2003;326(7384):308
  18. Bureau for International Narcotics , Law Enforcement Affairs . International Narcotics Control Strategy Report: Volume I: drug and chemical control. Washington: US Department of State; 2004;
  19. Calabria B, Phillips B, Singleton J, Mathers B, Congreve E, Degenhardt L, et al. Searching the grey literature to access information on drug and alcohol research. NDARC Technical Report No. 293. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of NSW; 2008;http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/NDARCWeb.nsf/page/Reports
  20. Callaghan RC, Brands B, Taylor L, Lentz T, Callaghan RC, Brands B, et al. The clinical characteristics of adolescents reporting methamphetamine as their primary drug of choice: an examination of youth admitted to inpatient substance-abuse treatment in northern British Columbia, Canada, 2001–2005. [Comparative Study Research Support Non-U. S. Gov’t]. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2007;40(3):286–289
  21. Caribbean Drug Abuse Epidemiology , Surveillance System Project . Bahamas Secondary School Survey. Bahamas: Bahamsa National Drug Council; 2003;
  22. Caribbean Epidemiology Centre . The Caribbean HIV/AIDS epidemic and the situation in member countries of the Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC). Caribbean Epidemiology Centre; 2007;
  23. Case P, Ramos R, Brouwer K, Firestone-Cruz M, Pollini R, Strathdee S, et al. At the borders, on the edge: Use of injected Methamphetamine in Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health. 2008;10(1):23–33
  24. Castiglioni S, Zuccato E, Crisci E, Chiabrando C, Fanelli R, Bagnati R. Identification and measurement of illicit drugs and their metabolites in urban wastewater by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry. 2006;78(24):8421–8429
  25. Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation . Recent trends in illegal drug use in New Zealand 2006. Auckland: Massey University; 2006;
  26. Chamla D, Chamla JH, Dabin W, Delin H, Rennes N. Transition to injection and sharing of needles/syringes: Potential for HIV transmission among heroin users in Chengdu, China. Addictive Behaviors. 2006;31:697–701
  27. Cheng Y, Sherman SG, Srirat N, Vongchak T, Kawichai S, Jittiwutikarn J, et al. Risk factors associated with injection initiation among drug users in Northern Thailand. Harm Reduction Journal. 2006;3:10
  28. Chesher G. Pharmacology of the sympathomimetic psychostimulants. In:  Burrows D,  Flaherty B,  MacAvoy M editor. Illicit psychostimulant use in Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service; 1993;p. 9–30
  29. Chintalova-Dallas R, Case P, Kitsenko N, Lazzarini Z. Boltushka: A homemade amphetamine-type stimulant and HIV risk in Odessa, Ukraine. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2009;20(4):347–351
  30. Cho AK, Melega WP. Patterns of methamphetamine abuse and their consequences. Journal of Addictive Diseases. 2002;21(1):21–34
  31. Chouvy PA, Meissonnier J. Yaa baa: Production traffic and consumption of methamphetamine in mainland Southeast Asia. Singapore: Singapore University Press; 2004;
  32. Cunningham JK, Liu L-M. Impacts of federal ephedrine and pseudoephedrine regulations on methamphetamine-related hospital admissions [Research Report]. Addiction. 2003;98(9):1229–1237September 2003
  33. Cunningham JK, Liu L-M. Impacts of federal precursor chemical regulations on methamphetamine arrests. Addiction. 2005;100(4):479–488April 2005
  34. Dangerous Drugs Board . A pilot study on nalbuphine hydroschloride abuse in Cebu and metro Manila. Manila: Dangerous Drugs Board of the Phillippines; 2005;
  35. Darke S, Cohen J, Ross J, Hando J, Hall W. Transitions between routes of administration of regular amphetamine users. Addiction. 1994;89(9):1077–1083
  36. Darke S, Hall W. Levels and correlates of polydrug use among heroin users and regular amphetamine users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 1995;39:231–235
  37. de Kort G, Batra S, Pasaribu R, Vazirian M, Ul-Hassan S. Young people and drugs: Towards a comprehensive health promotion policy. Chiang Mai: Asian Harm Reduction Network; 2005;
  38. Degenhardt L, Mathers B, Guarinieri M, Panda S, Phillips B, Strathdee S, et al. The global epidemiology of methamphetamine injection: A review of the evidence on use and associations with HIV and other harm. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of NSW; 2007;Accessible at: http://notes.med.unsw.edu.au/IDURGWeb.nsf/resources/thematic+papers/$file/methamphetamine+injecting+and+HIV+review.pdf
  39. Degenhardt L, Roxburgh A, Black E, Kinner S, Campbell G, Bruno R, et al. The epidemiology of methamphetamine use and harm in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2008;27(3):243–252
  40. Diaz RM, Heckert AL, Sanchez J. Reasons for stimulant use among Latino gay men in San Francisco: a comparison between methamphetamine and cocaine users. Journal of Urban Health. 2005;82(1 Suppl. 1):
  41. Dormitzer CM, Gonzalez GB, Penna M, Bejarano J, Obando P, Sanchez M, et al. The PACARDO research project: youthful drug involvement in Central America and the Dominican Republic. Pan American Journal of Public Health. 2004;15(6):400–416
  42. Drumright L, Patterson T, Strathdee S. Club drugs as causal risk factors for HIV acquisition among men who have sex with men: A review. Substance Use & Misuse. 2006;41:1551–1601
  43. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Denmark. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  44. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Finland. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  45. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in France. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  46. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Germany. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  47. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Hungary. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  48. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Netherlands. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  49. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Poland. Warsaw: EMCDDA; 2005;
  50. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in Slovakia. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  51. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in the Czech Republic. Lisbon: EMCDDA; 2005;
  52. EMCDDA . 2005 REITOX National Report on the drug situation in the United Kingdom. London: UK Department of Health; 2005;
  53. Emonson D, Vanderbeek R. The use of ampehtamines in US air force tactical operations during Desert Shield and Storm. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine. 1995;66:260–263
  54. In:  Eramova I,  Matic S,  Munz M editor. HIV/AIDS treatment and care for injecting drug users: Clinical protocol for the WHO European Region. Copenhagen: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe; 2006;
  55. Fairbairn N, Kerr T, Buxton JA, Li K, Montaner JS, Wood E. Increasing use and associated harms of crystal methamphetamine injection in a Canadian setting [Short Communication]. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007;88(2–3):313–316
  56. Farrell M, Marsden J, Ali R, Ling W. Methamphetamine: drug use and psychoses becomes a major public health issue in the Asia Pacific region. Addiction. 2002;97(7):771–772
  57. Gossop M, Griffiths P, Powis B, Strang J. Severity of dependence and route of administration of heroin, cocaine and amphetamines. British Journal of Addiction. 1992;87:1527–1536
  58. Grabowski J, Shearer J, Merrill J, Negus SS. Agonist-like, replacement pharmacotherapy for stimulant abuse and dependence. Addictive Behaviors. 2004;29(7):1439–1464
  59. Grant K, Sinclair Kelley S, Agrawal S, Meza JL, Meyer JR, Romberger DJ. Methamphetamine use in rural midwesterners. American Journal on Addictions. 2007;16(2):79–84
  60. Grund, J.-P., Zabransky, T., Irwin, K., & Heimer, R. (2009). Chapter 13. Stimulant use in Central and Eastern EUrope: How recent social history shaped current drug consumption patterns (pp. 173–202).
  61. Hacker MA, Malta M, Enriquez M, Bastos FI. Human immunodeficiency virus, AIDS, and drug consumption in South America and the Caribbean: Epidemiological evidence and initiatives to curb the epidemic. Pan American Journal of Public Health. 2005;18(4–5):303–313
  62. Halkitis P, Parsons JT, Stirratt M. A double epidemic: Crystal methamphetamine use in relation to HIV transmission among gay men. Journal of Homosexuality. 2001;41(2):17–35
  63. Halkitis PN, Fischgrund BN, Parsons JT. Explanations for methamphetamine use among gay and bisexual men in New York City. Substance Use & Misuse. 2005;40(9–10):1331–1345
  64. Hall W, Hando J. Route of administration and adverse effects of amphetamine use among young adults in Sydney. Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review. 1994;13:277–284
  65. Hall W, Ross J, Lynskey M, Law M, Degenhardt L. How many dependent heroin users are there in Australia? NDARC Monograph No. 44. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW; 2000;
  66. Hammer, M. R. (2006). A key to methamphetamine-related literature. [Draft Version 0.9.7]. Bureau of Special Populations, Division of HIV Prevention, AIDS Institute, New York State Department of Health. Retrieved 18.08.07 http://www.nyhealth.gov/diseases/aids/harm_reduction/crystalmeth/docs/meth_literature_index.pdf.
  67. Hassan KM. Current trends of illicit drug use and the country response in Bangladesh. Melbourne: University of Melbourne; 2005;
  68. Howard J, Hunt N, Arcuri A. A situational assessment and review of the evidence for interventions for the prevention of HIV/AIDS among Occassional, Experimental and Young Injecting Drug Users. UN Interagency and CEEHRN Technical Consultation on Occassional, Experimental and Young Injecting Drug Users in the CEE/CIS and Baltics; 2003;
  69. Hughes, C. (2005). Exclusive: Iraq fanatics’ kill pill. Iraq drug makes rebel fanatics fearless. Mirror.co.uk. Retrieved from http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=16433322&method=full&siteid=94762&headline=exclusive--iraq-fanatics--kill-pill-name_page.html.
  70. Ihunwo AO, Kayanja FIB, Amadi-Ihunwo UB. Use and perception of the psychostimulant, khat (catha edulis) among three occupational groups in south western Uganda. East African Medical Journal. 2004;81(9):468–473
  71. Jittiwutikarn J, Thongsawat S, Suriyanon V, Maneekarn N, Celentano D, Razak MH, et al. Hepatitis C infection among drug users in northern Thailand. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2006;74:1111–1116
  72. Joe-Laidler K, Morgan P. Kinship and community: The “ice” crisis in Hawaii. In:  Klee H editors. Amphetamine misuse: International perspectives on current trends. The Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers; 1997;p. 163–179
  73. Kalix P. Khat: A plant with amphetamine effects. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 1988;5(3):163–169
  74. Kandela P. Women's rights, a tourist boom, and the power of khat in Yemen. Lancet. 2000;355(9213):1437
  75. Kippax S, Campbell D, Van de Ven P, Crawford J, Prestage G, Knox S, et al. Cultures of sexual adventurism as markers of HIV seroconversion: A case control study in a cohort of Sydney gay men. AIDS Care. 1998;10(6):677–688
  76. Knapp, W., Soares, B., Farrel, M., & Lima, M. (2007). Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamines related disorders. Cochrane Database System Review, 3. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003023.pub2.
  77. Kozlov AP, Shaboltas AV, Toussova OV, Verevochkin SV, Masse BR, Perdue T, et al. HIV incidence and factors associated with HIV acquisition among injection drug users in St Petersburg, Russia. [see comment]. AIDS. 2006;20(6):901–906
  78. Kral A, Bluthenthal R, Lorvick J, Gee L, Bacchetti P, Edlin B. Sexual transmission of HIV-1 among injection drug users in San Francisco, USA: risk-factor analysis. Lancet. 2001;357:1397–1401
  79. Kraus L, Augustin R, Frischer M, Kümmler P, Uhl A, Wiessing L. Estimating prevalence of problem drug use at national level in countries of the European Union and Norway. Addiction. 2003;98:471–485
  80. Kurtz SP. Post-circuit blues: Motivations and consequences of crystal meth use among gay men in Miami. AIDS and Behavior. 2005;9(1):63–72
  81. Lee N. Chapter 4: Risks associated with psychostimulant use. In: 2nd ed.  Baker A,  Lee N,  Jenner J editor. Models of intervention and care for psychostimulant users. NDS Monograph Series No. 51. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing; 2004;p. 51–59
  82. Lelevich V, Kozlovsky A, Vinitskaya A, Maksimchuk V. Drug abuse and illegal drug trafficking in Belarus. Grodno: Programme of assistance for the prevention of drug abuse and drug trafficking in Belarus. Ukraine and Moldova. 2006;(BUMAD)
  83. Leonard L, DeRubeis E, Pelude L, Medd E, Birkett N, Seto J. I inject less as I have easier access to pipes”: Injecting, and sharing of crack-smoking materials, decline as safer crack-smoking resources are distributed. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2008;19(3):255–264
  84. London ED, Simon SL, Berman SM, Mandelkern MA, Lichtman AM, Bramen J, et al. Mood disturbances and regional cerebral metabolic abnormalities in recently abstinent methamphetamine abusers. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2004;61(1):73–84
  85. Malta M, Bastos FI, Pereira-Koller EM, Cunha MD, Marques C, Strathdee SA. A qualitative assessment of long distance truck drivers’ vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in Itaja, southern Brazil. AIDS Care. 2006;18(5):489–496
  86. Mathers B, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M, Strathdee S, et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: A systematic review. The Lancet. 2008;372:1733–1745
  87. Matsumoto T, Kamijo A, Miyakawa T, Endo K, Yabana T, Kishimoto H, et al. Methamphetamine in Japan: The consequences of methamphetamine abuse as a function of route of administration. Addiction. 2002;97(7):809–817
  88. Maxwell JC. Emerging research on methamphetamine. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2005;18:235–242
  89. Maxwell JC, Cravioto P, Galvan F, Cortes Ramirez M, Wallisch L, Spence RT. Drug use and risk of HIV/AIDS on the Mexico-USA border: A comparison of treatment admissions in both countries. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2006;1(82 Suppl.):S85–S93
  90. Maxwell JC, Rutowski B. The prevalence of methamphetamine and amphetamine abuse in North America: A review of the indicators, 1992–2007. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2008;27(3):229–235
  91. McKetin R, Kelly E, McLaren J. The relationship between crystalline methamphetamine use and methamphetamine dependence. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 2006;85(3):198–204
  92. McKetin R, McLaren J. The methamphetamine situation in Australia: A review of routine data sources. [Payneham S.A.]. Australasian Centre for Policing Research: National Drug Law Enforcement Fund; 2004;
  93. McKetin R, McLaren J, Lubman DI, Hides L. The prevalence of psychotic symptoms among methamphetamine users. Addiction. 2006;101(10):1473–1478
  94. McKirnan DJ, Vanable PA, Ostrow DG, Hope B. Expectancies of sexual “escape” and sexual risk among drug and alcohol-involved gay and bisexual men. Journal of Substance Abuse. 2001;13(1–2):137–154
  95. Merson M, O’Malley J, Serwadda D, Apisuk C. The history and challenge of HIV prevention. Lancet. 2008;372:475–488
  96. Mita, A. (2002). Police on alert for ‘Crystal Ice’. Cyprus Mail. Retrieved from http://www.cyprus-mail.com/.
  97. Mitu, W. (2007). Heroin and yaba flood Dhaka. The Daily Star. Retrieved 08.09.07, from http://thedailystar.net/2007/01/08/d701082501140.htm.
  98. Miura H, Fujiki M, Shibata A, Ishikawa K. Prevalence and profile of methamphetamine users in adolescents at a juvenile classification home. Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences. 2006;60(3):352–357
  99. Morgan P, Beck J. The legacy and the paradox: Hidden contexts of methamphetamine use in the United States. In:  Klee H editors. Amphetamine misuse: International perspectives on current trends. The Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers; 1997;p. 135–162
  100. Morris K, Parry C. South African methamphetamine boom could fuel further HIV. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2006;6(8):471
  101. Nascimento EC, Nascimento d, Silva EJdP. Alcohol and amphetamines use among long-distance truck drivers, Portuguese. Revista de Saude Publica. 2006;41:290–293
  102. National Surveillance Center on Drug Abuse . 2005 Annual report on drug abuse of China. Beijing: National Institue on Drug Dependence, Peking University; 2006;
  103. Neaigus A, Miller M, Friedman SR, Hagen DL, Sifaneck SJ, Ildefonso G, et al. Potential risk factors for the transition to injecting among non-injecting heroin users: A comparison of former injectors and never injectors. Addiction. 2001;96:847–860
  104. Nejo K. Pacific Islands Regional Profile. Bangkok: United Nations International Drug Control Programme Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific; 2003;
  105. O’Brien S, Black E, Roxburgh A, Degenhardt L, Bruno R, Campbell G, et al. Australian Drug Trends 2006: Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). NDARC Monograph 60. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales; 2007;
  106. Office of Applied Studies (2006). Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) Highlights—2005. Rockville.
  107. Panda S. Drug use in the northeastern states of India:. NODC Regional Office for South Asia and the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India; 2006;
  108. Parry CDH, Myers B, Pluddemann A. Drug policy for methamphetamine use urgently needed. South African Medical Journal, Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif Vir Geneeskunde. 2004;94(12):964–965
  109. Patterson TL, Semple SJ. Sexual risk reduction among HIV-positive drug-using men who have sex with men. Journal of Urban Health. 2003;80(4 Suppl. 3):
  110. Patterson TL, Semple SJ, Fraga M, Bucardo J, De La Torre A, Salazar J, et al. Comparison of sexual and drug use behaviors between female sex workers in Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Substance Use and Misuse. 2006;41(10):1535–1549
  111. Patterson T, Semple S, Staines H, Lozada R, Orozovich P, Bucardo J, et al. Prevalence and correlates of HIV infection among female sex workers in 2 Mexico-US border cities. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2008;197(5):728–732
  112. Pizzey R, Hunt N. Distributing foil from needle and syringe programmes (NSPs) to promote transitions from heroin injecting to chasing: An evaluation. Harm Reduction Journal. 2008;5:24
  113. Rahman N. The inevitable crash. Star Weekend Magazine. 2006;5
  114. Rawson R, Marinelli-Casey P, Anglin MD, Dickow A, Frazier Y, Gallagher C, et al. A multi-site comparison of psychosocial approaches for the treatment of methamphetamine dependence [Research Report]. Addiction. 2004;99(6):708–717June 2004
  115. Rawson RA, Gonzales R, Brethen P. Treatment of methamphetamine use disorders: An update. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2002;23(2):145–150
  116. Rawson RA, Marinelli-Casey P, Anglin MD, Dickow A, Frazier Y, Gallagher C, et al. A multi-site comparison of psychosocial approaches for the treatment of methamphetamine dependence. Addiction. 2004;99(6):708–717
  117. Reback CJ, Larkins S, Shoptaw S. Changes in the meaning of sexual risk behaviors among gay and bisexual male methamphetamine abusers before and after drug treatment. AIDS and Behavior. 2004;8(1):87–98
  118. Reccia L, Rocco A, Lioniello M, Fichera G. Amphetamine misuse in southern Italy. British Medical Journal. 1995;311(7017):1433
  119. Reid G, Devaney ML, Baldwin S. Drug production, trafficking and trade in Asia and Pacific Island countries. Drug & Alcohol Review. 2006;25(6):647–650
  120. Robles RR, Matos TD, Deren S, Colon HM, Sahai H, Marrero CA, et al. Drug treatment disparities among Hispanic drug-using women in Puerto Rico and New York City. Health Policy. 2006;75(2):159–169
  121. Rose V, Raymond HF, Kellogg TA, McFarland W. Assessing the feasibility of harm reduction services for MSM: The late night breakfast buffet study. Harm Reduction Journal. 2006;3(29):8
  122. Ross M, Mattison A, Franklin D. Club drugs and sex on drugs are associated with different motivations for gay circuit party attendance in men. Substance Use & Misuse. 2003;38(8):1173–1183
  123. Samii, B. (2005). Iran: Domestic drug abuse, smuggling on the rise. Radio Free Europe. Retrieved from http://www.payvand.com/news/05/dec/1029.html.
  124. Seiden L, Sobol K, Ricaurte G. Amphetamine: Effects on catecholamine systems and behaviour. Annual Reviews of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 1993;33:639–674
  125. Semaan S, Des Jarlais DC, Malow R. Behavior change and health-related interventions for heterosexual risk reduction among drug users. Substance Use & Misuse. 2006;41:1349–1378
  126. Shearer J. Treatment responses to problematic methamphetamine use: The Australian experience. In:  Pates R,  Riley D editor. Interventions for Amphetamine Misuse. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing; 2009;pp. 115–128, Chapter 9
  127. Shoptaw S, Frosch D. Substance abuse treatment as HIV prevention for men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior. 2000;4(2):193–203
  128. Stafford, J., Degenhardt, L., Agaliotis, M., Chanteloup, F., Fischer, J., Matthews, A. et al., (2005). Australian Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2004: Findings from the Party Drugs Initiative (PDI) (No. NDARC Monograph No. 57). Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales.
  129. Storr CL, Arria AM, Workman ZRL, Anthony JC. Neighborhood environment and opportunity to try methamphetamine (“ice”) and marijuana: Evidence from Guam in the Western Pacific region of Micronesia. Substance Use & Misuse. 2004;39(2):253–276
  130. Strathdee S, Case P, Lozada R, Mantsios A, Alvelais J, Pu M, et al. The color of meth: Is it related to adverse health outcomes? An exploratory study in Tijuana, Mexico. American Journal on Addictions. 2008;17(2):111–115
  131. Stryker Meyer, J. (2005). Meth reportedly fueling fanaticism in Iraq. NC Times. Retrieved from http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2005/01/07/news/columnists/another_tilt/20_38_341_6_05.txt.
  132. Swift W, Maher L, Sunjic S. Transitions between routes of heroin administration: A study of Caucasian and Indochinese heroin users in south-western Sydney, Australia. Addiction. 1999;94:71–82
  133. Topp L, Darke S, Degenhardt L, Degenhardt L, Kaye S, Darke S. The emergence of potent forms of methamphetamine in Sydney, Australia: A case study of the IDRS as a strategic early warning system. Drug and Alcohol Review. 2002;21(4):341–348December 2002
  134. Tsay W. Highlights of AMCEWG meeting 2006. Taipei: Taiwan National Bureau of Controlled Drugs; 2006;
  135. UNAIDS . AIDS epidemic update: December 2006. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2006;
  136. UNAIDS . Report on the global AIDS epidemic 2006. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2006;
  137. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . Patterns and trends in amphetamine-type stimulants in East Asia and the Pacific: Findings from the 2006 regional ATS questionnaire. Bangkok: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific; 2007;
  138. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . World Drug Report 2006. Vienna: United Nations; 2007;
  139. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . 2008 Global ATS assessment: Amphetamines and ecstasy. Vienna: United Nations; 2008;
  140. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . World Drug Report 2008. Vienna: United Nations; 2008;
  141. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . World Drug Report 2009. Vienna: United Nations; 2009;
  142. UNODC . World Drug Report 2009. Vienna: United Nations; 2009;
  143. US National Drug Intelligence Center (2003). Guam drug threat assessment. Retrieved November 2005, from http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4001/meth.htm.
  144. Volkow N, Fowler J, Wang G-J, Swanson J. Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: Results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Molecular Psychiatry. 2004;9:557–569
  145. Wasserheit J. Epidemiological synergy: Interrelationships between human immunodeficiency virus infection and other sexually transmitted diseases. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 1992;19:61–77
  146. Wattanaa W, van Griensvenb F, Rhucharoenpornpanicha O, Manopaiboonb C, Thienkruab W, Bannathama R, et al. Respondent-driven sampling to assess characteristics and estimate the number of injection drug users in Bangkok. Thailand. Drug & Alcohol Dependence. 2007;90:228–233
  147. Westermeyer J. The importance and difficulty of drug research in developing countries: A report from Kabul as timely reminder. Addiction. 2004;99:802–804
  148. Wood E, Stoltz J-A, Montaner JSG, Kerr T. Evaluating methamphetamine use and risks of injection initiation among street youth: The ARYS study. Harm Reduction Journal. 2006;3(18):6
  149. World Bank . HIV/AIDS in Bhutan. Washington: World Bank; 2006;
  150. World Health Organization . Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004;
  151. Zabransky T. Methamphetamine in the Czech Republic. Journal of Drug Issues. 2007;37(1):155–180
  152. Zule WA, Desmond DP, Morgan P, Joe KA. An Ethnographic comparison of HIV risk behaviors among heroin and methamphetamine injectors. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 1999;25:1–23
  153. Zweben J, Cohen J, Christian D, Galloway G, Salinardi M, Parent D, et al. Psychiatric symptoms in methamphetamine users. The American Journal on Addictions. 2004;13:181–190

PII: S0955-3959(09)00159-5

doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.11.007

International Journal of Drug Policy
Volume 21, Issue 5 , Pages 347-358 , September 2010