Research paperHigh risk and little knowledge: Overdose experiences and knowledge among young adult nonmedical prescription opioid users
Introduction
Opioid-involved overdoses have become an increasing concern as their incidence has risen markedly in the past 20 years (Calcaterra et al., 2013, Jones et al., 2014, Paulozzi, 2012). During the most recent decade, drug overdose deaths in the United States increased from approximately 4000 in 1999 to 14,800 in 2008 (Warner et al., 2011). Overdose rates have especially increased among young adults (ages 18–24) who experienced a greater increase in rates of death from opioid analgesics than any other age group from 1999 to 2006 (Blending Initiative, 2009). In New York City, the location of this study, unintentional opioid-involved overdose deaths increased by 267% between 2000 and 2011 (59 deaths vs. 220 deaths) (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2013). Much of the rise has been attributed to a dramatic increase in overdose among nonmedical prescription opioid (PO) users (Green et al., 2011, Katz et al., 2013, Silva et al., 2013) or recently initiated heroin users who transitioned to heroin from POs (Lankenau et al., 2012a, Lankenau et al., 2012b, Nielsen et al., 2011). Nonmedical prescription opioid use is particularly high among students and young adults in the United States as well as internationally (Brands et al., 2010, Ghandour et al., 2012, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2013).
Previous research has found that many nonmedical PO users are unaware of potential overdose risks, particularly in regard to polysubstance use (Lankenau et al., 2012a), and that while PO users are concerned about overdose, most believe the risk only applies to others who “use too much” or are “not careful ‘enough”’ (Daniulaityte, Falck, & Carlson, 2012). Yet overdose was not the focus of these studies, and, to our knowledge, there are no studies examining nonmedical PO users’ overdose knowledge and experience (apart from studies evaluating the effectiveness of naloxone distribution programs; see, for example, Strang et al., 2008, Williams et al., 2013).
Organized responses to the rising rate of overdose in the U.S. began to form in the mid 1990s with community-based programs that provided opioid overdose prevention services to persons who use drugs, as well as their family members and friends (CDC, 2012). Since 1996, increasing numbers of programs have offered naloxone, a specific opioid receptor antagonist used to reverse an opioid overdose or the effects of opioid analgesia (CDC, 2012, Galea et al., 2006). However, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations that designate naloxone as a prescription medication have made access difficult, and until recently, Syringe Exchange Programs (SEPs) and harm reduction organizations were among the few places where drug users and their families and friends were able to acquire naloxone and training in its proper use (NASADAD, 2013). The rise in opioid-involved overdoses has led to increased efforts by government and community organizations to make overdose prevention and response education (including naloxone) available outside of the SEP/harm reduction model (Albert et al., 2011, Doe-Simkins et al., 2009, NASADAD, 2013). Over the last decade, 17 U.S. States have passed laws intended to expand the availability of naloxone (NASADAD, 2013) to community organizations and family or friends of opioid users.
In 2006, New York State established the Opioid Overdose Prevention program which enables non-medical persons to administer naloxone in case of an opioid-involved overdose (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2014, New York Society of Addiction Medicine, 2011). Additionally, New York City recently began a pilot program supplying police officers in Staten Island (an area with particularly high rates of opioid-involved overdose) with naloxone and requisite training, leading to the first police officer-reversed overdose in January 2014 (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2014). Although such programs reflect increasing awareness of the role of POs in overdose and the importance of community-based responses, they are still relatively new and only available in select localities.
This exploratory study aims to elucidate the high overdose rates among young adults by providing a description of the overdose-related knowledge and experiences of young adult nonmedical PO users. Using a qualitative approach based on in-depth interviews with 46 young adults (ages 18–32) in New York City who reported nonmedical PO use within the past month, we sought to better understand how PO use relates to the likelihood and experience of overdose. Additionally, we aim to describe this group's knowledge of and experience with existing opioid safety/overdose prevention services and practices and how this impacts their experience with overdose.
Section snippets
Participant recruitment
This qualitative study is based on interviews with 46 New York City young adults (ages 18–32) who had engaged in nonmedical PO use in the 30 days preceding the interview. Participants were recruited via a combination of purposive and chain-referral sampling. The goal of the sampling strategy was to include a broad array of participants from a variety of racial, ethnic, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES) groups, and different geographic areas of New York City, as well as those with a range
Participant characteristics
Our study involved 46 participants. Within that group there were: 32 Whites; 9 Latinos; 3 African Americans; and 2 Asians. Twenty-seven participants were male, 18 female, and 1 transgender. Participants’ mean age was 25.3 years (SD = 3.9 years; range = 18–32 years), with 24 participants between the ages of 18–25 and 22 participants age 26 years or older. Participants’ level of education was as follows: 14 attended some high school; 9 received a high school diploma or GED; 14 attended some college;
Discussion
Although the rise in opioid-involved overdose deaths since 2000 has been widely reported in recent years (Centers for Disease Control, 2011, Green et al., 2011, Katz et al., 2013), there have been relatively few qualitative studies describing the social contexts and factors leading to overdose among young nonmedical PO users. Other studies have described the varying pathways to injection heroin use in light of recent increases in PO use (Mars, Bourgois, Karandinos, Montero, & Ciccarone, 2013),
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by Grant No. R01DA035146 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse. David Frank was supported as a predoctoral fellow in the Behavioral Sciences Training in Drug Abuse Research program sponsored by Public Health Solutions and National Development and Research Institutes with funding from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (5T32 DA07233). Points of view, opinions, and conclusions in this paper do not necessarily represent the official position of the U.S. Government,
References (53)
- et al.
National trends in pharmaceutical opioid related overdose deaths compared to other substance related overdose deaths: 1999–2009
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
(2013) - et al.
I’m not afraid of those ones just ‘cause they’ve been prescribed
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2012) - et al.
Provision of naloxone to injection drug users as an overdose prevention strategy: Early evidence from a pilot study in New York City
Addictive Behaviors
(2006) - et al.
Prevalence and patterns of commonly abused psychoactive prescription drugs in a sample of university students from Lebanon: An opportunity for cross-cultural comparisons
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
(2012) - et al.
Brief overdose education can significantly increase accurate recognition of opioid overdose among heroin users
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2014) - et al.
Risk factors for incident nonmedical prescription opioid use and abuse and dependence: Results from a longitudinal nationally representative sample
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
(2013) - et al.
Predictors of non-fatal overdose among a cohort of polysubstance using injection drug users
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
(2007) - et al.
Initiation into prescription opioid misuse amongst young injection drug users
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2012) - et al.
Overdosing among young injection drug users in San Francisco
Addictive Behaviors
(2001) Prescription drug overdoses: A review
Journal of Safety Research
(2012)
Deaths by unintentional illicit drug overdose in Italy, 1984–2000
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Factors associated with history of non-fatal overdose among young non-medical users of prescription drugs
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Injecting drug users: A stigmatised and stigmatising population
International Journal of Drug Policy
Interventions to prevent the initiation of injection drug use: A systematic review
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Development of opioid overdose knowledge (OOKS) and attitudes (OOAS) scales for take-home naloxone training evaluation
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Creating the American junkie: Addiction research in the classic era of narcotic control
Project lazarus: Community-based overdose prevention in rural North Carolina
Pain Medicine
Characteristics of an overdose prevention, response, and naloxone distribution program in Pittsburgh and Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine
Power, pleasure and dangerous substances: Applying Foucault to the study of ‘heroin dependence’ in Germany
Anthropology and Medicine
Buprenorphine treatment for young adults
Nonmedical use of opioid analgesics among Ontario students
Canadian Family Physician
Factors associated with non-fatal heroin overdose: Assessing the effects of frequency and route of administration
Addiction
NCHS data brief number 81, drug poisoning deaths in the United States, 1980–2008
Community-based opioid overdose prevention programs providing naloxone-United States, 2010
MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis
Relative abuse liability of prescription opioids compared to heroin in morphine-maintained heroin abusers
Neuropsychopharmacology
Cited by (102)
Characterization of deceased drug users in Denmark based on treatment status: A nationwide retrospective autopsy study
2022, Drug and Alcohol DependenceCitation Excerpt :Most were males in the study population and the drug users in treatment were, on average, older at their deaths than those not in treatment (44 years vs. 41 years old, respectively) due to a larger concentration of the youngest under 29 years among those not in treatment. Younger persons are known to engage in risk-prone behavior, which increase the risk of initiating drug use and subsequently overdosing (Frank et al., 2015; Romer and Hennessy, 2007). We hypothesize that this younger group had either not yet developed a detrimental drug use to make them seek treatment or they were delaying their entry into treatment as reported by other studies (Gayman et al., 2011).
Effects of fentanyl self-administration on risk-taking behavior in male rats
2023, PsychopharmacologyAssociation Between Opioid Use Disorder and Seizure Incidents Among Alcohol Use Disorder Patients
2023, Substance Abuse: Research and TreatmentEffects of Workplace Variables on Workers Intentions to Misuse Prescription Opioids
2023, Journal of Occupational and Environmental MedicineLeveraging the Full Continuum of Care to Prevent Opioid Use Disorder
2023, Prevention Science