CommentaryHashish in Morocco and Lebanon: A comparative study☆
Introduction
In the twentieth century, following increasing world-wide demand, Lebanon became a major producer of cannabis. In the 1960s, Morocco also began to produce hashish for export to the European market (Clarke, 1998). The strategic location of both countries – in the south of the Mediterranean, close to consumer markets in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East – has provided economic opportunity for poor farmers in marginalized areas, in the Rif in Morocco, and the Beqaa in Lebanon, and has allowed them to organize production and export of a drug at an affordable price.
The evolution of hashish in the Maghreb region and the Middle East has been influenced in a number of ways. For centuries, the spread of cannabis cultivation was affected by the mobility of goods and of people who transferred their knowledge and the techniques of cannabis cultivation and use. The Ottoman Empire and periods of colonization have also played a role in the development of production areas, which have either persisted or disappeared since independence. Morocco and Lebanon share certain cultural and religious similarities, but also similar socio-economic conditions in cannabis production areas. However, there are also differences in how crop growing areas have developed in the Rif and in the Beqaa. For example, unlike in Morocco where cannabis is a traditional and locally consumed crop, cannabis consumption in Lebanon remains marginal.
Using a comparative approach, and with the Rif in Morocco and the Beqaa in Lebanon as case studies, that takes in account the historical and institutionnal context, and the perception of cannabis in those two country, this article aims to evaluate changes in production in these traditional areas of cannabis cultivation and to better understand the role that these countries play in current trends in the global cultivation and consumption of cannabis.
The article will trace the history of cannabis in the régions of Maghreb and Middle East, describe the specialization of hashish production (keeping in mind the socio-political context of each country) as well as the specifics of exported hashish. Finally, current production in Rif and Beqaa will be discussed, taking into consideration the global shifts in cannabis production, including improvements in production techniques and the increased competition from Europe.
We rely on primary field research done in the Rif (from 2002) and in the Beqaa (from 1995) in the form of interviews and observations with farmers and intermediaries. Acreage and production estimates of hashish for both countries have been triangulated from different sources. Figures on cannabis cultivation and eradication were obtained from the Ministries of Interior and Police departments. There is no census on acreage and cannabis production in Lebanon, however, estimates have been calculated and published in annual reports on Lebanese agricultural production by the Research Center for Agricultural Studies and the State Department (Bureau of International Narcotics Matters) have released figures on confiscated and seized drugs by authorities. In Morocco, some unofficial estimates appear in public articles prior to 2003. From 2003 and 2005 three formal investigations were undertaken by the UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime) and the Government of Morocco (Kenza Afsahi participated in two of them). The producers’ and intermediaries’ names used in this paper remain fictional.
Section snippets
Cannabis and hashish in the Maghreb and Middle East: a brief history of circulation
The consumption, production and marketing of hashish are traditional practices in the Maghreb and Middle East regions. Over the past 12 centuries, migration, trade and different spiritual practices and trends have led to the expansion of cannabis production in the region, and have influenced cultivation techniques and consumption. This long period is marked by stages and rifts caused by foreign interference and a worldwide prohibition of cannabis at the beginning of the 20th century.
In Arabic,
Rif and Beqaa regions specialized in hashish production for export
In Morocco and Lebanon, farmers became expert in hashish production for export to international markets. Yet, cannabis production and distribution acquired a new dimension due to increasing global demand in the sixties. We highlight here the specialized skills in hashish production in both countries, the abilities of farmers and traffickers to adapt to various institutional contexts and finally the products brought onto the market.
Current hashish production in Morocco and Lebanon
In 2003, the first of three surveys carried out by the UNODC in cooperation with the Moroccan authorities reported cannabis plants covering 134,000 ha, with an estimated production of 3080 tons of hashish. In 2005, the third survey reported 72,500 ha of cannabis in the Rif, with an estimated production of 1066 tons of hashish (Afsahi, 2009, UNODC, 2003). In less than a decade, Morocco's cannabis cultivation fell from an estimated high of 134,000 ha in 2003, to 47,500 ha in 2011, or a 65% decrease (
Conclusion
Morocco and Lebanon are among the most important producers of hashish to be exported for trade for the last fifty years. The global prohibition of cannabis and the global sustained demand have created opportunities for poor farmers in the Rif and the Beqaa regions to survive and get wealthy. It is difficult to understand the reasons why areas producing cannabis are steadily increasing. If the Rif and the Beqaa share some features (such are marginalized areas of production, repressive
Conflict of interest statement
The authors declare no competing interests.
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The authors wish to acknowledge Khalid Mouna, Jamal Bellakhdar for their comments on a prior version of this article, and Carla Poquet for the improvement of the English writing.