Research PaperConsumer agency in cannabis supply – Exploring auto-regulatory documents of the cannabis social clubs in Spain
Introduction
People who use drugs (PWUD) and activists around the world have been actively seeking drug policy approaches which allow for user self-determination and self-organization and, at the same time, for abolishment of prohibition and establishing alternative means of drug supply (ENCOD, 2011; INPUD, 2016). Among these alternatives has been the user-initiated, self-regulated and non-profit “cannabis social club” (CSC) model. A commonly shared definition of CSCs is that they are not-for-profit associations of cannabis users that are officially registered; their main aim has been to supply their members with cannabis and its derivatives for their own consumption (ENCOD, 2011). Beyond cannabis production, in some countries, CSCs operate as consumption venues too (Decorte et al., 2017). The CSCs seem to have the potential to address harms related to cannabis use via educational activities and informal harm reduction (e.g. sharing information about the effects of the different cannabis strains), via controlled use (i.e. restricted, planned and regularly dispensed cannabis supply per each individual) or via reduction of stigma around cannabis use (Barriuso, 2005, Barriuso, 2011; Belackova, Tomkova, & Zabransky, 2016; Coombes, 2014).
CSCs have operated worldwide as users “grass-root” initiatives that emerged within the boundaries of cannabis decriminalisation (Kilmer & Pacula, 2016). In line with the U.N. drug conventions, cultivation for personal use could be treated non-criminally, the same as drug possession for one’s own use (Bewley-Taylor, Blickman, & Jelsma, 2014; Kilmer, Kruithof, Pardal, Caulkins, & Rubin, 2013). The establishment of CSCs thus seems feasible in countries where the national legislation “tolerates” personal cannabis cultivation together with sharing the drug among fellow users (Arana & Sánchez, 2011; Decorte, 2015). As such, cannabis social clubs have been experimented with in Belgium (Decorte, 2015), Chile, Colombia, Argentina, the United Kingdom, and France (Bewley-Taylor et al., 2014) for recreational purposes, and in Slovenia, Switzerland, New Zealand, and Italy for medicinal purposes (Decorte, 2015). CSCs are also a supply option under the legal cannabis regime in Uruguay (Coombes, 2014).
The largest application (and the origins) of the CSC model, however, can be found in Spain where the first CSC was established in 2001 and hundreds of them are now in operation, the majority of which are in Catalonia and in the Basque country (Barriuso, 2011; Blickman, 2014). The regulatory framework governing CSCs in such settings has been limited to laws around the civic associative practice (Decorte et al., 2017), to the sparse health-related recommendations issued by some local authorities (Parés & Bouso, 2015) and, predominantly, to the CSC self-regulatory practice, though guided by interpretation of the existing laws (Muñoz & Soto, 2001).
In Spain, six federations of CSCs joined the initiative “Responsible Regulation” in 2015 which was established in order to promote the health and wellbeing of cannabis users and to advocate for national-level regulation of cannabis production and consumption. These federations have been providing frameworks for self-regulation of CSCs and have represented their members in seeking legal recognition from authorities for over a decade. They associate a range of CSCs in terms of size, location and aims, and have diverse origins and objectives. Firstly, Federacion de Associaciones Cannabicas (FAC) was founded in 2003; it‘s local divisions with their regional aims are CATFAC (Catalonia) and EUSFAC (Basque Country). Over time, the diversity of views has led to the emergence of less “restrictive” approaches in these localities including higher limits on the amount of cannabis dispensed to members, bigger budgets, more hierarchical organizational structures, and venues that looked more like lounges or bars (Parés & Bouso, 2015). Other federations were formed, namely EKHEEF in the Basque country, FEDCAC in Catalonia and CANAFAC in the Balearic Islands. The members of the latter three federations (EKHEEF, FEDCAC and CANAFAC) have formed the Platform of Federation of Associated Cannabis Users (PAUC) – a counterpart to the initial FAC.
CSCs can be seen as a remarkable demonstration of consumer agency in cannabis production and distribution. While CSCs seem as a rather new model in the formal cannabis policy debate, and not a widely evaluated one (possibly due to its grass-roots nature), consumer engagement in cannabis supply and peer self-organization to minimise the harms of drug use have been well documented. This paper applies the term “consumer” in line with its meaning as active recipient role in designing (mental) health care (Lammers & Happell, 2003), and builds on its recent applications onto PWUD who engage in the drug policy process (Lancaster, Seear, Treloar, & Ritter, 2017). We use this term interchangeably with terms like “peer” or “people with lived experience” that have arisen in similar contexts (Crofts & Herkt, 1995; Treloar & Rhodes, 2009). As the term “consumer” has a conventional meaning in lay language related to marketing (Solomon, 1994), it seems to be even more relevant when discussing legal and regulated cannabis markets and the role of users “consuming” cannabis products.
Section snippets
Consumer engagement in cannabis and other illicit drug supply
Self-supply with cannabis has been widespread across the globe. In an online survey that collected information about European drug markets, cannabis cultivation was reported by approximately one fifth of Czech, Italian and Swedish last year cannabis users, as well as among 9% of cannabis users in the UK and 5% in the Netherlands (Belackova, Maalsté, Zabransky, & Grund, 2015; Trautmann, Kilmer, & Turnbull, 2013). An international survey of cannabis cultivators from Canada, U.S., Belgium,
Methods
In order to collect all relevant, publicly available auto-regulatory documents of cannabis social clubs in Spain, a search on the surface web was conducted with the following key words: “federation”; “cannabis users”; “cannabis social club”; “code of conduct”; “Spain”; “Catalonia”; “Basque Country” in May 2016 (both Spanish and English equivalents were used). All search outcomes were screened for their content; items that contained aims and/or regulations of CSC federations and that were
Findings
Five major themes that were related to the organization and rules in CSCs, to the cannabis cultivation and to the use of cannabis in the clubs were identified in the CsoC.
- (i)
aims and administration of CSCs
All the federations declared that they acted on a not-for-profit basis (in two CsoC, salary limits to employees were explicitly mentioned). Related to this, a broad range of aims that the CSCs were trying to achieve (rather than profit) were provided (e.g. self-regulation, avoidance of the black
Discussion
The CsoC published online by the CSC federations focused on five major themes: (i) aims and administration of CSCs, (ii) conditions for membership and for allocating collective cultivation, (iii) collective cultivation and operation guidelines, (iv) regulation of the consumption venue, and on (v) health-related measures. These self-proclaimed aims were in line with several areas of cannabis policy regulation that had been identified by scholars to date.
Conclusions
Cannabis users have self-supplied themselves and others with cannabis as a way to avoid the illegal market; cultivating and sharing cannabis also has social and health motivations. Recently, cannabis consumers in different places around the world, notably in Spain, have organized into cannabis social clubs (CSCs). Beyond cannabis production, CSCs offer a unique space for both formal and informal dissemination of health-related information and education. In this respect, the CSCs can be
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Oscar Parés for comments to the initial version of this manuscript. No specific funding was received for this publication.
References (86)
- et al.
“Should I Buy or Should I Grow?’’ How drug policy institutions and drug market transaction costs shape the decision to self-supply with cannabis in the Netherlands and the Czech Republic
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2015) - et al.
Qualitative Research in Spanish Cannabis Social Clubs: The Moment You Enter the Door, You Are Minimising the Risks
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2016) - et al.
A practical framework for regulating for-profit recreational marijuana in US States: Lessons from Colorado and Washington
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2017) - et al.
Regulating cannabis social clubs: A comparative analysis of legal and self-regulatory practices in Spain, Belgium and Uruguay
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2017) Cannabis social clubs in Belgium: Organizational strengths and weaknesses, and threats to the model
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2015)Peer support within a health care context: a concept analysis
International Journal of Nursing Studies
(2003)- et al.
Harm reduction theory: Usersé culture, micro-social indigenous harm reduction, and the self-organization and outside-organizing of usersé groups
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2007) - et al.
Breaking worse: The emergence of krokodil and excessive injuries among people who inject drugs in Eurasia
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2013) - et al.
Maximising the highs and minimising the lows: Harm reduction guidance within ecstasy distribution networks
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2008) - et al.
Consumer use and understanding of labelling information on edible marijuana products sold for recreational use in the states of Colorado and Washington
International Journal of Drug Policy
(2017)